acl acl2013 acl2013-368 knowledge-graph by maker-knowledge-mining
Source: pdf
Author: Ryan McDonald ; Joakim Nivre ; Yvonne Quirmbach-Brundage ; Yoav Goldberg ; Dipanjan Das ; Kuzman Ganchev ; Keith Hall ; Slav Petrov ; Hao Zhang ; Oscar Tackstrom ; Claudia Bedini ; Nuria Bertomeu Castello ; Jungmee Lee
Abstract: We present a new collection of treebanks with homogeneous syntactic dependency annotation for six languages: German, English, Swedish, Spanish, French and Korean. To show the usefulness of such a resource, we present a case study of crosslingual transfer parsing with more reliable evaluation than has been possible before. This ‘universal’ treebank is made freely available in order to facilitate research on multilingual dependency parsing.1
Reference: text
sentIndex sentText sentNum sentScore
1 Universal Dependency Annotation for Multilingual Parsing Ryan McDonald† Joakim Nivre†∗ Yvonne Quirmbach-Brundage‡ Dipanjan Das† Kuzman Ganchev† Keith Hall† Slav Petrov† Oscar T¨ ackstr o¨m†∗ Claudia Bedini‡ N u´ria Bertomeu Castell o´‡ Google, Inc. [sent-1, score-0.065]
2 Abstract We present a new collection of treebanks with homogeneous syntactic dependency annotation for six languages: German, English, Swedish, Spanish, French and Korean. [sent-5, score-0.618]
3 To show the usefulness of such a resource, we present a case study of crosslingual transfer parsing with more reliable evaluation than has been possible before. [sent-6, score-0.116]
4 This ‘universal’ treebank is made freely available in order to facilitate research on multilingual dependency parsing. [sent-7, score-0.383]
5 1 1 Introduction In recent years, syntactic representations based on head-modifier dependency relations between words have attracted a lot of interest (K¨ ubler et al. [sent-8, score-0.347]
6 Research in dependency parsing computational methods to predict such representations has increased dramatically, due in large part to the availability of dependency treebanks in a number of languages. [sent-10, score-0.624]
7 In particular, the CoNLL shared tasks on dependency parsing have provided over twenty data sets in a standardized format (Buchholz and Marsi, 2006; Nivre et al. [sent-11, score-0.28]
8 While these data sets are standardized in terms of their formal representation, they are still heterogeneous treebanks. [sent-13, score-0.046]
9 That is to say, despite them all being dependency treebanks, which annotate each sentence with a dependency tree, they subscribe to different annotation schemes. [sent-14, score-0.491]
10 This can include superficial differences, such as the renaming of common relations, as well as true divergences concerning the analysis of linguistic constructions. [sent-15, score-0.056]
11 Common divergences are found in the – – 1Downloadable at https://code. [sent-16, score-0.056]
12 These data sets can be sufficient if one’s goal is to build monolingual parsers and evaluate their quality without reference to other languages, as in the original CoNLL shared tasks, but there are many cases where heterogenous treebanks are less than adequate. [sent-23, score-0.332]
13 First, a homogeneous representation is critical for multilingual language technologies that require consistent cross-lingual analysis for downstream components. [sent-24, score-0.151]
14 Second, consistent syntactic representations are desirable in the evaluation of unsupervised (Klein and Manning, 2004) or cross-lingual syntactic parsers (Hwa et al. [sent-25, score-0.193]
15 (201 1), where delexicalized parsing models from a number of source languages were evaluated on a set of target languages, it was observed that the best target language was frequently not the closest typologically to the source. [sent-28, score-0.317]
16 In one stunning example, Danish was the worst source language when parsing Swedish, solely due to greatly divergent annotation schemes. [sent-29, score-0.197]
17 In order to overcome these difficulties, some cross-lingual studies have resorted to heuristics to homogenize treebanks (Hwa et al. [sent-30, score-0.263]
18 , 2009), but we are only aware of a few systematic attempts to create homogenous syntactic dependency annotation in multiple languages. [sent-32, score-0.358]
19 (2012) attempt to harmonize a large number of dependency treebanks by mapping their annotation to a version of the Prague Dependency Treebank scheme (Haji ˇc et al. [sent-34, score-0.595]
20 c e2 A0s1s3oc Aiastsioocnia fotiron C foomrp Cuotmatpiountaatlio Lninaglu Liisntgicusi,s ptaicgses 92–97, tactic analyses across multiple languages using alternate syntactic theories as the basis for the representation (Butt et al. [sent-39, score-0.155]
21 In order to facilitate research on multilingual syntactic analysis, we present a collection of data sets with uniformly analyzed sentences for six languages: German, English, French, Korean, Spanish and Swedish. [sent-43, score-0.103]
22 In the context of part-of-speech tagging, universal representations, such as that of Petrov et al. [sent-45, score-0.188]
23 We aim to do the same for syntactic dependencies and present cross-lingual parsing experiments to highlight some of the benefits of cross-lingually consistent annotation. [sent-50, score-0.228]
24 First, results largely conform to our expectations of which target languages should be useful for which source languages, unlike in the study of McDonald et al. [sent-51, score-0.112]
25 Second, the evaluation scores in general are significantly higher than previous cross-lingual studies, suggesting that most ofthese studies underestimate true accuracy. [sent-53, score-0.049]
26 Finally, unlike all previous cross-lingual studies, we can report full labeled accuracies and not just unlabeled structural accuracies. [sent-54, score-0.048]
27 2 Towards A Universal Treebank The Stanford typed dependencies for English (De Marneffe et al. [sent-55, score-0.126]
28 , 2006; de Marneffe and Manning, 2008) serve as the point of departure for our ‘universal’ dependency representation, together with the tag set of Petrov et al. [sent-56, score-0.176]
29 The Stanford scheme, partly inspired by the LFG framework, has emerged as a de facto standard for dependency annotation in English and has recently been adapted to several languages representing different (and typologically diverse) language groups, such as Chinese (Sino-Tibetan) (Chang et al. [sent-58, score-0.499]
30 We use the so-called basic dependencies (with punctuation included), where every dependency structure is a tree spanning all the input tokens, because this is the kind of representation that most available dependency parsers require. [sent-65, score-0.496]
31 A sample dependency tree from the French data set is shown in Figure 1. [sent-66, score-0.176]
32 The first is traditional manual annotation, as previously used by Helmreich et al. [sent-68, score-0.042]
33 1 Automatic Conversion Since the Stanford dependencies for English are taken as the starting point for our universal annotation scheme, we begin by describing the data sets produced by automatic conversion. [sent-73, score-0.409]
34 , 1993) to basic dependency trees, including punctuation and with the copula verb as head in copula constructions. [sent-77, score-0.336]
35 For Swedish, we developed a set of deterministic rules for converting the Talbanken part of the Swedish Treebank (Nivre and Megyesi, 2007) to a representation as close as possible to the Stanford dependencies for English. [sent-78, score-0.082]
36 This mainly consisted in relabeling dependency relations and, due to the fine-grained label set used in the Swedish Treebank (Teleman, 1974), this could be done with high precision. [sent-79, score-0.275]
37 For both English and Swedish, we mapped the language-specific partof-speech tags to universal tags using the map- pings of Petrov et al. [sent-82, score-0.188]
38 The annotators were then tasked with producing language-specific annotation guidelines with the expressed goal of keeping the label and construction set as close as possible to the original English set, only adding labels for phenomena that do not exist in English. [sent-89, score-0.435]
39 Once these guidelines were fixed, annotators selected roughly an equal amount of sentences to be annotated from each domain in the unlabeled data. [sent-91, score-0.219]
40 The selected sentences were pre-processed using cross-lingual taggers (Das and Petrov, 2011) and parsers (McDonald et al. [sent-93, score-0.062]
41 The annotators modified the pre-parsed trees using the TrEd2 tool. [sent-95, score-0.093]
42 At the beginning of the annotation process, double-blind annotation, followed by manual arbitration and consensus, was used iteratively for small batches of data until the guidelines were finalized. [sent-96, score-0.259]
43 3 Harmonization After producing the two converted and four annotated data sets, we performed a harmonization step, where the goal was to maximize consistency of annotation across languages. [sent-100, score-0.33]
44 In particular, we wanted to eliminate cases where the same label was used for different linguistic relations in different languages and, conversely, where one and 2Available at http://ufal. [sent-101, score-0.256]
45 the same relation was annotated with different labels, both of which could happen accidentally because annotators were allowed to add new labels for the language they were working on. [sent-105, score-0.16]
46 Moreover, we wanted to avoid, as far as possible, labels that were only used in one or two languages. [sent-106, score-0.112]
47 In order to satisfy these requirements, a number of language-specific labels were merged into more general labels. [sent-107, score-0.067]
48 For example, in analogy with the nn label for (element of a) noun-noun compound, the annotators of German added aa for compound adjectives, and the annotators of Korean added vv for compound verbs. [sent-108, score-0.354]
49 In the harmonization step, these three labels were merged into a single label compmod for modifier in compound. [sent-109, score-0.365]
50 In addition to harmonizing language-specific labels, we also renamed a small number of relations, where the name would be misleading in the universal context (although quite appropriate for English). [sent-110, score-0.264]
51 For example, the label prep (for a modifier headed by a preposition) was renamed adpmod, to make clear the relation to other modifier labels and to allow postpositions as well as prepositions. [sent-111, score-0.299]
52 3 We also eliminated a few distinctions in the original Stanford scheme that were not annotated consistently across languages (e. [sent-112, score-0.237]
53 The final set of labels is listed with explanations in Table 1. [sent-115, score-0.067]
54 Note that relative to the universal partof-speech tagset of Petrov et al. [sent-116, score-0.188]
55 (2012) our final label set is quite rich (40 versus 12). [sent-117, score-0.058]
56 This is due mainly to the fact that the the former is based on deterministic mappings from a large set of annotation schemes and therefore reduced to the granularity of the greatest common denominator. [sent-118, score-0.139]
57 4The only two data sets that were created through conversion in our case were English, for which the Stanford dependencies were originally defined, and Swedish, where the native annotation happens to have a fine-grained label set. [sent-123, score-0.33]
58 The data release includes scripts to generate this data, not the data itself. [sent-126, score-0.058]
59 t kIenn sad dduiteio ton at om tohree cdoaatars itself, annotation guidelines and harmonization rules are included so that the data can be regenerated. [sent-131, score-0.408]
60 3 Experiments One of the motivating factors in creating such a data set was improved cross-lingual transfer evaluation. [sent-132, score-0.058]
61 To test this, we use a cross-lingual transfer parser similar to that of McDonald et al. [sent-133, score-0.104]
62 In particular, it is a perceptron-trained shift-reduce parser with a beam of size 8. [sent-135, score-0.046]
63 We report both unlabeled attachment score (UAS) and labeled attachment score (LAS) (Buchholz and Marsi, 2006). [sent-141, score-0.048]
64 This is likely the first reliable cross-lingual parsing evaluation. [sent-142, score-0.058]
65 In particular, previous studies could not even report LAS due to differences in treebank annotations. [sent-143, score-0.196]
66 (201 1), who observe that this is rarely the case with the heterogenous CoNLL treebanks. [sent-147, score-0.056]
67 Among the Germanic languages, it is interesting to note that Swedish is the best source language for both German and English, which makes sense from a typological point of view, because Swedish is intermediate between German and English in terms of word order properties. [sent-148, score-0.052]
68 For Romance languages, the crosslingual parser is approaching the accuracy of the supervised setting, confirming that for these lan- guages much of the divergence is lexical and not structural, which is not true for the Germanic languages. [sent-149, score-0.046]
69 Finally, Korean emerges as a very clear outlier (both as a source and as a target language), which again is supported by typological considerations as well as by the difference in tokenization. [sent-150, score-0.052]
70 (201 1) for the languages com5These splits are included in the release of the data. [sent-152, score-0.17]
71 This suggests that most cross-lingual parsing studies have underestimated accuracies. [sent-158, score-0.107]
72 4 Conclusion We have released data sets for six languages with consistent dependency annotation. [sent-159, score-0.333]
73 After the initial release, we will continue to annotate data in more languages as well as investigate further automatic treebank conversions. [sent-160, score-0.259]
74 This may also lead to modifications of the annotation scheme, which should be regarded as preliminary at this point. [sent-161, score-0.139]
75 This will ensure a consistent analysis of functional elements that in some languages are not realized as free words or are not obligatory, such as adpositions which are often absent due to case inflections in languages like Finnish. [sent-163, score-0.269]
76 Andrea Held, Supreet Chinnan, Elizabeth Hewitt, Tu Tsao and Leigha Weinberg made the release process smooth. [sent-170, score-0.058]
77 References Alena B¨ ohmov a´, Jan Haji cˇ, Eva Haji cˇov a´, and Barbora Hladk ´a. [sent-175, score-0.062]
78 Corpus-based induction of syntactic structure: models of dependency and constituency. [sent-252, score-0.219]
79 Bootstrapping a Swedish treebank using cross-corpus harmonization and annotation projection. [sent-273, score-0.477]
80 Oscar T¨ ackstr o¨m, Dipanjan Das, Slav Petrov, Ryan McDonald, and Joakim Nivre. [sent-292, score-0.065]
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simIndex simValue paperId paperTitle
same-paper 1 1.0000001 368 acl-2013-Universal Dependency Annotation for Multilingual Parsing
Author: Ryan McDonald ; Joakim Nivre ; Yvonne Quirmbach-Brundage ; Yoav Goldberg ; Dipanjan Das ; Kuzman Ganchev ; Keith Hall ; Slav Petrov ; Hao Zhang ; Oscar Tackstrom ; Claudia Bedini ; Nuria Bertomeu Castello ; Jungmee Lee
Abstract: We present a new collection of treebanks with homogeneous syntactic dependency annotation for six languages: German, English, Swedish, Spanish, French and Korean. To show the usefulness of such a resource, we present a case study of crosslingual transfer parsing with more reliable evaluation than has been possible before. This ‘universal’ treebank is made freely available in order to facilitate research on multilingual dependency parsing.1
2 0.26801541 98 acl-2013-Cross-lingual Transfer of Semantic Role Labeling Models
Author: Mikhail Kozhevnikov ; Ivan Titov
Abstract: Semantic Role Labeling (SRL) has become one of the standard tasks of natural language processing and proven useful as a source of information for a number of other applications. We address the problem of transferring an SRL model from one language to another using a shared feature representation. This approach is then evaluated on three language pairs, demonstrating competitive performance as compared to a state-of-the-art unsupervised SRL system and a cross-lingual annotation projection baseline. We also consider the contribution of different aspects of the feature representation to the performance of the model and discuss practical applicability of this method. 1 Background and Motivation Semantic role labeling has proven useful in many natural language processing tasks, such as question answering (Shen and Lapata, 2007; Kaisser and Webber, 2007), textual entailment (Sammons et al., 2009), machine translation (Wu and Fung, 2009; Liu and Gildea, 2010; Gao and Vogel, 2011) and dialogue systems (Basili et al., 2009; van der Plas et al., 2009). Multiple models have been designed to automatically predict semantic roles, and a considerable amount of data has been annotated to train these models, if only for a few more popular languages. As the annotation is costly, one would like to leverage existing resources to minimize the human effort required to construct a model for a new language. A number of approaches to the construction of semantic role labeling models for new languages have been proposed. On one end of the scale is unsupervised SRL, such as Grenager and Manning (2006), which requires some expert knowledge, but no labeled data. It clusters together arguments that should bear the same semantic role, but does not assign a particular role to each cluster. On the other end is annotating a new dataset from scratch. There are also intermediate options, which often make use of similarities between languages. This way, if an accurate model exists for one language, it should help simplify the construction of a model for another, related language. The approaches in this third group often use parallel data to bridge the gap between languages. Cross-lingual annotation projection systems (Pad o´ and Lapata, 2009), for example, propagate information directly via word alignment links. However, they are very sensitive to the quality of parallel data, as well as the accuracy of a sourcelanguage model on it. An alternative approach, known as cross-lingual model transfer, or cross-lingual model adaptation, consists of modifying a source-language model to make it directly applicable to a new language. This usually involves constructing a shared feature representation across the two languages. McDonald et al. (201 1) successfully apply this idea to the transfer of dependency parsers, using part-of- speech tags as the shared representation of words. A later extension of T ¨ackstr o¨m et al. (2012) enriches this representation with cross-lingual word clusters, considerably improving the performance. In the case of SRL, a shared representation that is purely syntactic is likely to be insufficient, since structures with different semantics may be realized by the same syntactic construct, for example “in August” vs “in Britain”. However with the help of recently introduced cross-lingual word represen1190 Proce dingsS o f ita h,e B 5u1lgsta Arinan,u Aaulg Musete 4ti-n9g 2 o0f1 t3h.e ? Ac s2s0o1ci3a Atiosnso fcoirat Cio nm foprut Caotimonpaulta Lti nognuails Lti cnsg,u piasgteics 1 90–120 , tations, such as the cross-lingual clustering mentioned above or cross-lingual distributed word representations of Klementiev et al. (2012), we may be able to transfer models of shallow semantics in a similar fashion. In this work we construct a shared feature representation for a pair of languages, employing crosslingual representations of syntactic and lexical information, train a semantic role labeling model on one language and apply it to the other one. This approach yields an SRL model for a new language at a very low cost, effectively requiring only a source language model and parallel data. We evaluate on five (directed) language pairs EN-ZH, ZH-EN, EN-CZ, CZ-EN and EN-FR, where EN, FR, CZ and ZH denote English, French, Czech and Chinese, respectively. The transferred model is compared against two baselines: an unsupervised SRL system and a model trained on the output of a cross-lingual annotation projection system. In the next section we will describe our setup, then in section 3 present the shared feature representation we use, discuss the evaluation data and other technical aspects in section 4, present the results and conclude with an overview of related work. – 2 Setup The purpose of the study is not to develop a yet another semantic role labeling system any existing SRL system can (after some modification) be used in this setup but to assess the practical applicability of cross-lingual model transfer to this – – problem, compare it against the alternatives and identify its strong/weak points depending on a particular setup. 2.1 Semantic Role Labeling Model We consider the dependency-based version of semantic role labeling as described in Haji cˇ et al. (2009) and transfer an SRL model from one language to another. We only consider verbal predicates and ignore the predicate disambiguation stage. We also assume that the predicate identification information is available in most languages it can be obtained using a relatively simple heuristic based on part-of-speech tags. The model performs argument identification and classification (Johansson and Nugues, 2008) separately in a pipeline first each candidate is classified as being or not being a head of an argument phrase with respect to the predicate in question and then each of the arguments is assigned a role from a given inventory. The model is factorized over arguments the decisions regarding the classification of different arguments are made in– – – dependently of each other. With respect to the use of syntactic annotation we consider two options: using an existing dependency parser for the target language and obtaining one by means of cross-lingual transfer (see section 4.2). Following McDonald et al. (201 1), we assume that a part-of-speech tagger is available for the target language. 2.2 SRL in the Low-resource Setting Several approaches have been proposed to obtain an SRL model for a new language with little or no manual annotation. Unsupervised SRL models (Lang and Lapata, 2010) cluster the arguments of predicates in a given corpus according to their semantic roles. The performance of such models can be impressive, especially for those languages where semantic roles correlate strongly with syntactic relation of the argument to its predicate. However, assigning meaningful role labels to the resulting clusters requires additional effort and the model’s parameters generally need some adjustment for every language. If the necessary resources are already available for a closely related language, they can be utilized to facilitate the construction of a model for the target language. This can be achieved either by means of cross-lingual annotation projection (Yarowsky et al., 2001) or by cross-lingual model transfer (Zeman and Resnik, 2008). This last approach is the one we are considering in this work, and the other two options are treated as baselines. The unsupervised model will be further referred to as UNSUP and the projection baseline as PROJ. 2.3 Evaluation Measures We use the F1 measure as a metric for the argument identification stage and accuracy as an aggregate measure of argument classification performance. When comparing to the unsupervised SRL system the clustering evaluation measures are used instead. These are purity and collocation 1191 N1Ximajx|Gj∩ Ci| CO =N1Xjmiax|Gj∩ Ci|, PU = where Ci is the set of arguments in the i-th induced cluster, Gj is the set of arguments in the jth gold cluster and N is the total number of arguments. We report the harmonic mean ofthe two (Lang and Lapata, 2011) and denote it F1c to avoid confusing it with the supervised metric. 3 Model Transfer The idea of this work is to abstract the model away from the particular source language and apply it to a new one. This setup requires that we use the same feature representation for both languages, for example part-of-speech tags and dependency relation labels should be from the same inventory. Some features are not applicable to certain lan- guages because the corresponding phenomena are absent in them. For example, consider a strongly inflected language and an analytic one. While the latter can usually convey the information encoded in the word form in the former one (number, gender, etc.), finding a shared feature representation for such information is non-trivial. In this study we will confine ourselves to those features that are applicable to all languages in question, namely: part-of-speech tags, syntactic dependency structures and representations of the word’s identity. 3.1 Lexical Information We train a model on one language and apply it to a different one. In order for this to work, the words of the two languages have to be mapped into a common feature space. It is also desirable that closely related words from both languages have similar representations in this space. Word mapping. The first option is simply to use the source language words as the shared representation. Here every source language word would have itself as its representation and every target word would map into a source word that corresponds to it. In other words, we supply the model with a gloss of the target sentence. The mapping (bilingual dictionary) we use is derived from a word-aligned parallel corpus, by identifying, for each word in the target language, the word in the source language it is most often aligned to. Cross-lingual clusters. There is no guarantee that each of the words in the evaluation data is present in our dictionary, nor that the corresponding source-language word is present in the training data, so the model would benefit from the ability to generalize over closely related words. This can, for example, be achieved by using cross-lingual word clusters induced in T ¨ackstr o¨m et al. (2012). We incorporate these clusters as features into our model. 3.2 Syntactic Information Part-of-speech Tags. We map part-of-speech tags into the universal tagset following Petrov et al. (2012). This may have a negative effect on the performance of a monolingual model, since most part-of-speech tagsets are more fine-grained than the universal POS tags considered here. For example Penn Treebank inventory contains 36 tags and the universal POS tagset only 12. Since the finergrained POS tags often reflect more languagespecific phenomena, however, they would only be useful for very closely related languages in the cross-lingual setting. The universal part-of-speech tags used in evaluation are derived from gold-standard annotation for all languages except French, where predicted ones had to be used instead. Dependency Structure. Another important aspect of syntactic information is the dependency structure. Most dependency relation inventories are language-specific, and finding a shared representation for them is a challenging problem. One could map dependency relations into a simplified form that would be shared between languages, as it is done for part-of-speech tags in Petrov et al. (2012). The extent to which this would be useful, however, depends on the similarity of syntactic-semantic in– terfaces of the languages in question. In this work we discard the dependency relation labels where the inventories do not match and only consider the unlabeled syntactic dependency graph. Some discrepancies, such as variations in attachment order, may be present even there, but this does not appear to be the case with the datasets we use for evaluation. If a target language is poor in resources, one can obtain a dependency parser for the target language by means of cross-lingual model transfer (Zeman and Resnik, 2008). We 1192 take this into account and evaluate both using the original dependency structures and the ones obtained by means of cross-lingual model transfer. 3.3 The Model The model we use is based on that of Bj ¨orkelund et al. (2009). It is comprised of a set of linear classifiers trained using Liblinear (Fan et al., 2008). The feature model was modified to accommodate the cross-lingual cluster features and the reranker component was not used. We do not model the interaction between different argument roles in the same predicate. While this has been found useful, in the cross-lingual setup one has to be careful with the assumptions made. For example, modeling the sequence of roles using a Markov chain (Thompson et al., 2003) may not work well in the present setting, especially between distant languages, as the order or arguments is not necessarily preserved. Most constraints that prove useful for SRL (Chang et al., 2007) also require customization when applied to a new language, and some rely on languagespecific resources, such as a valency lexicon. Taking into account the interaction between different arguments of a predicate is likely to improve the performance of the transferred model, but this is outside the scope of this work. 3.4 Feature Selection Compatibility of feature representations is necessary but not sufficient for successful model transfer. We have to make sure that the features we use are predictive of similar outcomes in the two languages as well. Depending on the pair of languages in question, different aspects of the feature representation will retain or lose their predictive power. We can be reasonably certain that the identity of an argument word is predictive of its semantic role in any language, but it might or might not be true of, for example, the word directly preceding the argument word. It is therefore important to pre- SCPDGylOespoSntreslTabunc1lra:obsFel-daitnguplrdoaeusntpagd-elronwfu-dcsopeyrnsd c.eylafguhtorsia mepgnrhs vent the model from capturing overly specific aspects of the source language, which we do by confining the model to first-order features. We also avoid feature selection, which, performed on the source language, is unlikely to help the model to better generalize to the target one. The experiments confirm that feature selection and the use of second-order features degrade the performance of the transferred model. 3.5 Feature Groups For each word, we use its part-of-speech tag, cross-lingual cluster id, word identity (glossed, when evaluating on the target language) and its dependency relation to its parent. Features associated with an argument word include the attributes of the predicate word, the argument word, its parent, siblings and children, and the words directly preceding and following it. Also included are the sequences of part-of-speech tags and dependency relations on the path between the predicate and the argument. Since we are also interested in the impact of different aspects of the feature representation, we divide the features into groups as summarized in table 1 and evaluate their respective contributions to the performance of the model. If a feature group is enabled the model has access to the corre– sponding source of information. For example, if only POS group is enabled, the model relies on the part-of-speech tags of the argument, the predicate and the words to the right and left of the argument word. If Synt is enabled too, it also uses the POS tags of the argument’s parent, children and siblings. Word order information constitutes an implicit group that is always available. It includes the Pos it ion feature, which indicates whether the argument is located to the left or to the right of the predicate, and allows the model to look up the attributes of the words directly preceding and following the argument word. The model we compare against the baselines uses all applicable feature groups (Deprel is only used in EN-CZ and CZ-EN experiments with original syntax). 4 Evaluation 4.1 Datasets and Preprocessing Evaluation of the cross-lingual model transfer requires a rather specific kind of dataset. Namely, the data in both languages has to be annotated 1193 with the same set of semantic roles following the same (or compatible) guidelines, which is seldom the case. We have identified three language pairs for which such resources are available: EnglishChinese, English-Czech and English-French. The evaluation datasets for English and Chinese are those from the CoNLL Shared Task 2009 (Haji ˇc et al., 2009) (henceforth CoNLL-ST). Their annotation in the CoNLL-ST is not identical, but the guidelines for “core” semantic roles are similar (Kingsbury et al., 2004), so we evaluate only on core roles here. The data for the second language pair is drawn from the Prague Czech-English Dependency Treebank 2.0 (Haji ˇc et al., 2012), which we converted to a format similar to that of CoNLL-ST1 . The original annotation uses the tectogrammatical representation (Haji ˇc, 2002) and an inventory of semantic roles (or functors), most of which are interpretable across various predicates. Also note that the syntactic anno- tation of English and Czech in PCEDT 2.0 is quite similar (to the extent permitted by the difference in the structure of the two languages) and we can use the dependency relations in our experiments. For English-French, the English CoNLL-ST dataset was used as a source and the model was evaluated on the manually annotated dataset from van der Plas et al. (201 1). The latter contains one thousand sentences from the French part ofthe Europarl (Koehn, 2005) corpus, annotated with semantic roles following an adapted version of PropBank (Palmer et al., 2005) guidelines. The authors perform annotation projection from English to French, using a joint model of syntax and semantics and employing heuristics for filtering. We use a model trained on the output of this projection system as one of the baselines. The evaluation dataset is relatively small in this case, so we perform the transfer only one-way, from English to French. The part-of-speech tags in all datasets were replaced with the universal POS tags of Petrov et al. (2012). For Czech, we have augmented the map- pings to account for the tags that were not present in the datasets from which the original mappings were derived. Namely, tag “t” is mapped to “VERB” and “Y” to “PRON”. We use parallel data to construct a bilingual dictionary used in word mapping, as well as in the projection baseline. For English-Czech – 1see http://www.ml4nlp.de/code-and-data/treex2conll and English-French, the data is drawn from Europarl (Koehn, 2005), for English-Chinese from MultiUN (Eisele and Chen, 2010). The word alignments were obtained using GIZA++ (Och and Ney, 2003) and the intersection heuristic. – 4.2 Syntactic Transfer In the low-resource setting, we cannot always rely on the availability of an accurate dependency parser for the target language. If one is not available, the natural solution would be to use crosslingual model transfer to obtain it. Unfortunately, the models presented in the previous work, such as Zeman and Resnik (2008), McDonald et al. (201 1) and T ¨ackstr o¨m et al. (2012), were not made available, so we reproduced the direct transfer algorithm of McDonald et al. (201 1), using Malt parser (Nivre, 2008) and the same set of features. We did not reimplement the projected transfer algorithm, however, and used the default training procedure instead of perceptron-based learning. The dependency structure thus obtained is, of course, only a rough approximation even a much more sophisticated algorithm may not perform well when transferring syntax between such languages as Czech and English, given the inherent difference in their structure. The scores are shown in table 2. We will henceforth refer to the syntactic annotations that were provided with the datasets as original, as opposed to the annotations obtained by means of syntactic transfer. – 4.3 Baselines Unsupervised Baseline: We are using a version of the unsupervised semantic role induction system of Titov and Klementiev (2012a) adapted to SetupUAS, % Table2:SyntaciE C ZcN HNt- rE ZaCFnN HZRsfer34 692567acuracy,unlabe dat- tachment score (percent). Note that in case of French we evaluate against the output of a supervised system, since manual annotation is not available for this dataset. This score does not reflect the true performance of syntactic transfer. 1194 the shared feature representation considered in order to make the scores comparable with those of the transfer model and, more importantly, to enable evaluation on transferred syntax. Note that the original system, tailored to a more expressive language-specific syntactic representation and equipped with heuristics to identify active/passive voice and other phenomena, achieves higher scores than those we report here. Projection Baseline: The projection baseline we use for English-Czech and English-Chinese is a straightforward one: we label the source side of a parallel corpus using the source-language model, then identify those verbs on the target side that are aligned to a predicate, mark them as predicates and propagate the argument roles in the same fashion. A model is then trained on the resulting training data and applied to the test set. For English-French we instead use the output of a fully featured projection model of van der Plas et al. (201 1), published in the CLASSiC project. 5 Results In order to ensure that the results are consistent, the test sets, except for the French one, were partitioned into five equal parts (of 5 to 10 thousand sentences each, depending on the dataset) and the evaluation performed separately on each one. All evaluation figures for English, Czech or Chinese below are the average values over the five subsets. In case of French, the evaluation dataset is too small to split it further, so instead we ran the evaluation five times on a randomly selected 80% sample of the evaluation data and averaged over those. In both cases the results are consistent over the subsets, the standard deviation does not exceed 0.5% for the transfer system and projection baseline and 1% for the unsupervised system. 5.1 Argument Identification We summarize the results in table 3. Argument identification is known to rely heavily on syntactic information, so it is unsurprising that it proves inaccurate when transferred syntax is used. Our simple projection baseline suffers from the same problem. Even with original syntactic information available, the performance of argument identification is moderate. Note that the model of (van der Plas et al., 2011), though relying on more expressive syntax, only outperforms the transferred system by 3% (F1) on this task. SetupSyntaxTRANSPROJ ZEC NH Z- EFCZNRHt r a n s 3462 1. 536 142 35. 4269 Table3EZ C:N H- CFEZANHZRrgumeon rt ig identf56 7ic13 a. t27903ion,21569t10ra. 3976nsferd model vs. projection baseline, F1. Most unsupervised SRL approaches assume that the argument identification is performed by some external means, for example heuristically (Lang and Lapata, 2011). Such heuristics or unsupervised approaches to argument identification (Abend et al., 2009) can also be used in the present setup. 5.2 Argument Classification In the following tables, TRANS column contains the results for the transferred system, UNSUP for the unsupervised baseline and PROJ for projection baseline. We highlight in bold the higher score where the difference exceeds twice the maximum of the standard deviation estimates of the two results. Table 4 presents the unsupervised evaluation results. Note that the unsupervised model performs as well as the transferred one or better where the – – SetupSyntaxTRANSUNSUP ZEC NH Z- EFCZNRHt r a n s 768 93648. 34627 6 5873. 1769 TableEZ C4NHZ:- FCEZANHZRrgumoe nr itg clasi78 fi94 3c. a25136tion,8 7 r9a4263n. 07 sferd model vs. unsupervised baseline in terms of the clustering metric F1c (see section 2.3). 1195 SetupSyntaxTRANSPROJ ZEC NH Z- EFCZNRHt r a n s 657 053. 1 36456419. 372 Table5EZ C:N H- CFEZANHZRrgumeon rt ig clasif657ic1936a. t170 ion,65 9t3804ra. 20847nsferd model vs. projection baseline, accuracy. original syntactic dependencies are available. In the more realistic scenario with transferred syn- tax, however, the transferred model proves more accurate. In table 5 we compare the transferred system with the projection baseline. It is easy to see that the scores vary strongly depending on the language pair, due to both the difference in the annotation scheme used and the degree of relatedness between the languages. The drop in performance when transferring the model to another language is large in every case, though, see table 6. SetupTargetSource Table6:MoCEZdHeNZ l- FECaZNRcH urac67 y53169o. 017nthes87 o25670u. r1245ceandtrge language using original syntax. The source language scores for English vary between language pairs because of the difference in syntactic annotation and role subset used. We also include the individual F1 scores for the top-10 most frequent labels for EN-CZ transfer with original syntax in table 7. The model provides meaningful predictions here, despite low overall accuracy. Most of the labels2 are self-explanatory: Patient (PAT), Actor (ACT), Time (TWHEN), Effect (EFF), Location (LOC), Manner (MANN), Addressee (ADDR), Extent (EXT). CPHR marks the 2http://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/∼toman/pcedt/en/functors.html LabelFreq.F1Re.Pr. recall and precision for the top-10 most frequent roles. nominal part of a complex predicate, as in “to have [a plan]CPHR”, and DIR3 indicates destination. 5.3 Additional Experiments We now evaluate the contribution of different aspects of the feature representation to the performance of the model. Table 8 contains the results for English-French. FeaturesOrigTrans ferent feature subsets, using original and transferred syntactic information. The fact that the model performs slightly better with transferred syntax may be explained by two factors. Firstly, as we already mentioned, the original syntactic annotation is also produced automatically. Secondly, in the model transfer setup it is more important how closely the syntacticsemantic interface on the target side resembles that on the source side than how well it matches the “true” structure of the target language, and in this respect a transferred dependency parser may have an advantage over one trained on target-language data. The high impact of the Glos s features here 1196 may be partly attributed to the fact that the mapping is derived from the same corpus as the evaluation data Europarl (Koehn, 2005) and partly by the similarity between English and French in terms of word order, usage of articles and prepositions. The moderate contribution of the crosslingual cluster features are likely due to the insufficient granularity of the clustering for this task. For more distant language pairs, the contributions of individual feature groups are less interpretable, so we only highlight a few observations. First of all, both EN-CZ and CZ-EN benefit noticeably from the use of the original syntactic annotation, including dependency relations, but not from the transferred syntax, most likely due to the low syntactic transfer performance. Both perform better when lexical information is available, although – – the improvement is not as significant as in the case of French only up to 5%. The situation with Chinese is somewhat complicated in that adding lexical information here fails to yield an improvement in terms of the metric considered. This is likely due to the fact that we consider only the core roles, which can usually be predicted with high accuracy based on syntactic information alone. – 6 Related Work Development of robust statistical models for core NLP tasks is a challenging problem, and adaptation of existing models to new languages presents a viable alternative to exhaustive annotation for each language. Although the models thus obtained are generally imperfect, they can be further refined for a particular language and domain using techniques such as active learning (Settles, 2010; Chen et al., 2011). Cross-lingual annotation projection (Yarowsky et al., 2001) approaches have been applied ex- tensively to a variety of tasks, including POS tagging (Xi and Hwa, 2005; Das and Petrov, 2011), morphology segmentation (Snyder and Barzilay, 2008), verb classification (Merlo et al., 2002), mention detection (Zitouni and Florian, 2008), LFG parsing (Wr o´blewska and Frank, 2009), information extraction (Kim et al., 2010), SRL (Pad o´ and Lapata, 2009; van der Plas et al., 2011; Annesi and Basili, 2010; Tonelli and Pianta, 2008), dependency parsing (Naseem et al., 2012; Ganchev et al., 2009; Smith and Eisner, 2009; Hwa et al., 2005) or temporal relation prediction (Spreyer and Frank, 2008). Interestingly, it has also been used to propagate morphosyntactic information between old and modern versions of the same language (Meyer, 2011). Cross-lingual model transfer methods (McDonald et al., 2011; Zeman and Resnik, 2008; Durrett et al., 2012; Søgaard, 2011; Lopez et al., 2008) have also been receiving much attention recently. The basic idea behind model transfer is similar to that of cross-lingual annotation projection, as we can see from the way parallel data is used in, for example, McDonald et al. (201 1). A crucial component of direct transfer approaches is the unified feature representation. There are at least two such representations of lexical information (Klementiev et al., 2012; T ¨ackstr o¨m et al., 2012), but both work on word level. This makes it hard to account for phenomena that are expressed differently in the languages considered, for example the syntactic function of a certain word may be indicated by a preposition, inflection or word order, depending on the language. Accurate representation of such information would require an extra level of abstraction (Haji ˇc, 2002). A side-effect ofusing adaptation methods is that we are forced to use the same annotation scheme for the task in question (SRL, in our case), which in turn simplifies the development of cross-lingual tools for downstream tasks. Such representations are also likely to be useful in machine translation. Unsupervised semantic role labeling methods (Lang and Lapata, 2010; Lang and Lapata, 2011; Titov and Klementiev, 2012a; Lorenzo and Cerisara, 2012) also constitute an alternative to cross-lingual model transfer. For an overview of of semi-supervised approaches we refer the reader to Titov and Klementiev (2012b). 7 Conclusion We have considered the cross-lingual model transfer approach as applied to the task of semantic role labeling and observed that for closely related languages it performs comparably to annotation projection approaches. It allows one to quickly construct an SRL model for a new language without manual annotation or language-specific heuristics, provided an accurate model is available for one of the related languages along with a certain amount of parallel data for the two languages. While an1197 notation projection approaches require sentenceand word-aligned parallel data and crucially depend on the accuracy of the syntactic parsing and SRL on the source side of the parallel corpus, cross-lingual model transfer can be performed using only a bilingual dictionary. Unsupervised SRL approaches have their advantages, in particular when no annotated data is available for any of the related languages and there is a syntactic parser available for the target one, but the annotation they produce is not always sufficient. In applications such as Information Retrieval it is preferable to have precise labels, rather than just clusters of arguments, for example. Also note that when applying cross-lingual model transfer in practice, one can improve upon the performance of the simplistic model we use for evaluation, for example by picking the features manually, taking into account the properties of the target language. Domain adaptation techniques can also be employed to adjust the model to the target language. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Alexandre Klementiev and Ryan McDonald for useful suggestions and T ¨ackstr o¨m et al. (2012) for sharing the cross-lingual word representations. 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