acl acl2013 acl2013-344 knowledge-graph by maker-knowledge-mining
Source: pdf
Author: Jesse Dunietz ; Lori Levin ; Jaime Carbonell
Abstract: Lexical resources such as WordNet and VerbNet are widely used in a multitude of NLP tasks, as are annotated corpora such as treebanks. Often, the resources are used as-is, without question or examination. This practice risks missing significant performance gains and even entire techniques. This paper addresses the importance of resource quality through the lens of a challenging NLP task: detecting selectional preference violations. We present DAVID, a simple, lexical resource-based preference violation detector. With asis lexical resources, DAVID achieves an F1-measure of just 28.27%. When the resource entries and parser outputs for a small sample are corrected, however, the F1-measure on that sample jumps from 40% to 61.54%, and performance on other examples rises, suggesting that the algorithm becomes practical given refined resources. More broadly, this paper shows that resource quality matters tremendously, sometimes even more than algorithmic improvements.
Reference: text
sentIndex sentText sentNum sentScore
1 edu Abstract Lexical resources such as WordNet and VerbNet are widely used in a multitude of NLP tasks, as are annotated corpora such as treebanks. [sent-3, score-0.056]
2 This practice risks missing significant performance gains and even entire techniques. [sent-5, score-0.074]
3 This paper addresses the importance of resource quality through the lens of a challenging NLP task: detecting selectional preference violations. [sent-6, score-0.362]
4 We present DAVID, a simple, lexical resource-based preference violation detector. [sent-7, score-0.243]
5 When the resource entries and parser outputs for a small sample are corrected, however, the F1-measure on that sample jumps from 40% to 61. [sent-10, score-0.178]
6 More broadly, this paper shows that resource quality matters tremendously, sometimes even more than algorithmic improvements. [sent-12, score-0.149]
7 1 Introduction A variety of NLP tasks have been addressed using selectional preferences or restrictions, including word sense disambiguation (see Navigli (2009)), semantic parsing (e. [sent-13, score-0.25]
8 , Shi and Mihalcea (2005)), and metaphor processing (see Shutova (2010)). [sent-15, score-0.102]
9 These semantic problems are quite challenging; metaphor analysis, for instance, has long been recognized as requiring considerable seman- tic knowledge (Wilks, 1978; Carbonell, 1980). [sent-16, score-0.102]
10 edu , presents an opportunity to revisit such challenges from the perspective of selectional preference violations. [sent-19, score-0.256]
11 In this paper, we present DAVID (Detector of Arguments of Verbs with Incompatible Denotations), a resource-based system for detecting preference violations. [sent-22, score-0.1]
12 Manning (201 1) showed that this may not hold for POS tagging that further improvements may require resource cleanup. [sent-27, score-0.106]
13 In the same spirit, we argue that for some semantic tasks, exemplified by preference violation detection, resource quality may be at least as essential as algorithmic enhancements. [sent-28, score-0.392]
14 – 2 The Preference Violation Detection Task DAVID builds on the insight of Wilks (1978) that the strongest indicator of metaphoricity is the violation of selectional preferences. [sent-29, score-0.299]
15 If laws is the object of pruned, the verb is likely metaphorical. [sent-31, score-0.18]
16 Flagging such semantic mismatches between verbs and arguments is the task of preference violation detection. [sent-32, score-0.375]
17 c A2s0s1o3ci Aatsiosonc fioartio Cno fmorpu Ctoamtiopnuatalt Lioin gauli Lsitnicgsu,i psatgices 765–7 0, We base our definition of preferences on the Pragglejaz guidelines (Pragglejaz Group, 2007) for identifying the most basic sense of a word as the most concrete, embodied, or precise one. [sent-35, score-0.094]
18 Similarly, we define selectional preferences as the semantic constraints imposed by a verb’s most basic sense. [sent-36, score-0.222]
19 Dictionaries may list figurative senses of prune, but we take the basic sense to be cutting plant growth. [sent-37, score-0.085]
20 Several types of verbs were excluded from the task because they have very lax preferences. [sent-38, score-0.061]
21 For the sake of simplifying implementation, phrasal verbs were also ignored. [sent-42, score-0.061]
22 , 2011), a semantic role labeling (SRL) system; VerbNet, a computational verb lexicon; SemLink (Loper et al. [sent-44, score-0.136]
23 , 2007), which includes mappings between PropBank (Palmer et al. [sent-45, score-0.253]
24 As one metaphor detection component of METAL’s several, DAVID is designed to favor precision over recall. [sent-47, score-0.129]
25 Run SENNA to identify the semantic arguments of each verb in the sentence using the PropBank argument annotation scheme (Arg0, Arg1, etc. [sent-53, score-0.197]
26 For each verb V , find all VerbNet entries for V . [sent-57, score-0.162]
27 Using SemLink, map each PropBank argument name to the corresponding VerbNet thematic roles in these entries (Agent, Patient, etc. [sent-58, score-0.17]
28 Retrieve from VerbNet the selectional restrictions of each thematic role. [sent-65, score-0.336]
29 If the head of any argument cannot be interpreted to meet V ’s preferences, flag V as a violation. [sent-69, score-0.064]
30 “The politician pruned laws regulating plastic bags, and created new fees for inspecting dairy farms. [sent-70, score-0.4]
31 ” Verb Arg0 Arg1 pruned regulating created inspecting The politician laws The politician -- laws . [sent-71, score-0.404]
32 bags plastic bags new fees dairy farms Table 1: SENNA’s SRL output for the example sentence above. [sent-74, score-0.2]
33 Restriction WordNet Synsets animate animate being . [sent-76, score-0.15]
34 0 1 concrete organization Table 2: DAVID’s mappings between some common VerbNet restriction types and WordNet synsets. [sent-92, score-0.357]
35 Each VerbNet restriction is interpreted as mandating or forbidding a set of WordNet hypernyms, defined by a custom mapping (see Table 2). [sent-93, score-0.091]
36 For example, VerbNet requires both the Patient of a verb in carve-2 1. [sent-94, score-0.09]
37 2 -2 and the Theme of a verb in wipe manner- 10 . [sent-95, score-0.09]
38 By empirical inspection, concrete nouns are hyponyms of the WordNet synsets phys i ob j ect . [sent-98, score-0.152]
39 Each verb was marked for whether its arguments violated the selectional preferences of the most basic, literal meaning of the verb. [sent-108, score-0.383]
40 The annotators resolved conflicts by dis766 Error source Frequency Bad/missing VN entries Bad/missing VN restrictions Bad/missing SL mappings Parsing/head-finding errors SRL errors 4. [sent-109, score-0.601]
41 6%) VN restriction system too weak Confounding WordNet senses Endemic errors: Resource errors: Tool errors: Total: 4 (12. [sent-117, score-0.12]
42 For errors that were due to a combination of sources, 1/2 point was awarded to each source. [sent-126, score-0.066]
43 With such low precision and F1, it seemed a lexical resource-based preference violation detector was out. [sent-130, score-0.276]
44 When we analyzed the errors in 90 randomly selected sentences, however, we found that most were not due to systemic problems with the ap- proach; rather, they stemmed from SRL and parsing errors and missing or incorrect resource entries (see Table 3). [sent-131, score-0.414]
45 6 Refining The Data To evaluate the effects of correcting DAVID’s inputs, we manually corrected the tool outputs and resource entries that affected the aforementioned 90 sentences. [sent-133, score-0.46]
46 SRL output was corrected for every sentence, while SemLink and VerbNet entries were corrected only for each verb that produced an error. [sent-134, score-0.478]
47 1 Corrections to Tool Output (Parser/SRL) Guided by the PropBank database and annotation guidelines, we corrected all errors in core role assignments from SENNA. [sent-136, score-0.27]
48 These corrections included relabeling arguments, adding missed arguments, fixing argument spans, and deleting annotations for non-verbs. [sent-137, score-0.365]
49 The only parser-related error we corrected was a mislabeled noun. [sent-138, score-0.158]
50 2 Correcting Corrupted Data in VerbNet The VerbNet download is missing several subclasses that are referred to by SemLink or that have been updated on the VerbNet website. [sent-140, score-0.165]
51 Some roles also have not been updated to the latest version, and some subclasses are listed with incorrect IDs. [sent-141, score-0.147]
52 These problems, which caused SemLink mappings to fail, were corrected before reviewing errors from the corpus. [sent-142, score-0.477]
53 Six subclasses needed to be fixed, all of which were easily detected by a simple script that did not depend on the 90-sentence subcorpus. [sent-143, score-0.091]
54 We therefore expect that few further changes of this type would be needed for a more complete resource refinement effort. [sent-144, score-0.197]
55 3 Corpus-Based Updates to SemLink Our modifications to SemLink’s mappings included adding missing verbs, adding missing roles to mappings, and correcting mappings to more appropriate classes or roles. [sent-146, score-0.869]
56 We also added null mappings in cases where a PropBank argument had no corresponding role in VerbNet. [sent-147, score-0.397]
57 This makes the system’s strategy for ruling out mappings more reliable. [sent-148, score-0.253]
58 No corrections were made purely based on the sample. [sent-149, score-0.142]
59 Any time a verb’s mappings were edited, VerbNet was scoured for plausible mappings for every verb sense in PropBank, and any nonsensical mappings were deleted. [sent-150, score-0.922]
60 For example, when the phrase go dormant caused an error, we inspected the mappings for go. [sent-151, score-0.253]
61 Arguments of all but 2 of the 7 available mappings were edited, either to add missing arguments or to correct nonsensical ones. [sent-152, score-0.443]
62 These changes actually had a net negative impact on test set performance because the bad mappings had masked parsing and selectional preference problems. [sent-153, score-0.599]
63 Based on the 90-sentence subcorpus, we modified 20 of the existing verb entries in SemLink. [sent-154, score-0.162]
64 These changes included correcting 8 role mappings, adding 13 missing role mappings to existing senses, deleting 2 incorrect senses, adding 11verb senses, correcting 2 senses, deleting 1 superfluous role mapping, and adding 46 null role mappings. [sent-155, score-1.048]
65 (Note that although null mappings represented the largest set of changes, they also had the least impact on system behavior. [sent-156, score-0.315]
66 The modifications generally involved adding, correcting, or deleting selectional restrictions, often by introducing or rearranging subclasses. [sent-160, score-0.275]
67 Other changes amounted to fixing clerical errors, such as incorrect role names or restrictions that had been ANDed instead of ORed. [sent-161, score-0.352]
68 In some cases, the restrictions specified on a verb in a subclass did not apply to subcategorization frames inherited from a superclass, but in other cases the restrictions clearly applied to all frames. [sent-163, score-0.414]
69 The conflict was resolved by duplicating subclassed verbs in the top-level class whenever different selectional restrictions were needed for the two sets of frames. [sent-164, score-0.361]
70 Any non-obvious changes to selectional restrictions were verified by examining dozens of verb instances from SketchEngine’s (Kilgarriff et al. [sent-166, score-0.438]
71 For example, the Agent of seek was restricted to +animate, but the corpus confirmed that organizations are commonly described non-metaphorically as seeking, so the restriction was updated to +animate | +organi z at i on. [sent-168, score-0.063]
72 7 Results After Resource Refinement After making corrections for each set of 10 sentences, we incrementally recomputed F1 and precision, both on the subcorpus corrected so far and on a test set of all 625 sentences that were never corrected. [sent-169, score-0.342]
73 The most striking feature of these figures is how much performance improves on corrected sentences: for the full 90 sentences, F1 rose from 30. [sent-172, score-0.158]
74 Interestingly, resource corrections alone generally made a larger difference than tool corrections alone, suggesting that resources may be the dominant factor in resource-intensive tasks such as this one. [sent-177, score-0.552]
75 Even more compellingly, the improvement from correcting both the tools and the resources was nearly double the sum of the improvements from each alone: tool and resource improvements interact synergistically. [sent-178, score-0.314]
76 Due to a combination of SRL problems and the small number of sentences corrected, the scores on the test set improved little with resource correction; in fact, they even dipped slightly between the 30- and 60-sentence increments. [sent-180, score-0.106]
77 Note also that all results on the test set are without corrected tool output; presumably, these sentences would also have improved synergistically with more accurate SRL. [sent-182, score-0.247]
78 How long corrections would continue to improve performance is a question that we did not have the resources to answer, but our results suggest that there is plenty of room to go. [sent-183, score-0.225]
79 Some errors, of course, are endemic to the approach and cannot be fixed either by improved resources or by better tools. [sent-184, score-0.107]
80 Additionally, the selectional restrictions specified by VerbNet are fairly loose; a more refined set of categories might capture the range of verbs’ restrictions more accurately. [sent-186, score-0.444]
81 8 Implications for Future Refinement Efforts Although improving resources is infamously labor-intensive, we believe that similarly refining the remainder of VerbNet and SemLink would be doable. [sent-187, score-0.083]
82 In our study, it took about 25-35 personhours to examine about 150 verbs and to modify 20 VerbNet classes and 25 SemLink verb entries (excluding time for SENNA corrections, fixing corrupt VerbNet data, and analysis ofDAVID’s errors). [sent-188, score-0.307]
83 Improving SemLink could be more complex, as its mappings are automatically generated from VerbNet annotations on top of the PropBank corpus. [sent-190, score-0.253]
84 One possibility is to correct the generated mappings directly, as we did in our study, which we estimate would take about two person-months. [sent-191, score-0.253]
85 768 With the addition of some metadata from the generation process, it would then be possible to follow the corrected mappings back to annotations from which they were generated and fix those annotations. [sent-192, score-0.445]
86 One downside of this approach is that if the mappings were ever regenerated from the anno- tated corpus, any mappings not encountered in the corpus would have to be added back afterwards. [sent-193, score-0.506]
87 Null role mappings would be particularly thorny to implement. [sent-194, score-0.299]
88 To add a null mapping, we must know that a role definitely does not belong, and is not just incidentally missing from an example. [sent-195, score-0.182]
89 0 1, but Arg0 or Arg1 may be missing for other reasons (e. [sent-197, score-0.074]
90 It may be best to simply omit null mappings, as is currently done. [sent-200, score-0.062]
91 Alternatively, full parses from the Penn Treebank, on which PropBank is based, might allow distinguishing phenomena such as passives where arguments are predictably omitted. [sent-201, score-0.071]
92 The maintainers of VerbNet and PropBank are aware of many of the issues we have raised, and we have been in contact with them about possible approaches to fixing them. [sent-202, score-0.084]
93 They are particularly aware of the inconsistent semantics of selectional restrictions on VerbNet subclasses, and they hope to fix this issue within a larger attempt at retooling VerbNet’s selectional restrictions. [sent-203, score-0.516]
94 We are also sharing our SemLink changes so that they can, if they choose, continue manual correction efforts or trace SemLink problems back to the annotated corpus. [sent-205, score-0.108]
95 9 Conclusion Our results argue for investing effort in developing and fixing resources, in addition to developing better NLP tools. [sent-206, score-0.126]
96 Resource and tool improvements interact synergistically: better resources multiply the effect of algorithm enhancements. [sent-207, score-0.1]
97 Gains from fixing resources may sometimes even exceed what the best possible algorithmic improvements can provide. [sent-208, score-0.183]
98 We hope the NLP community will take up the challenge of investing in its resources to the extent that its tools demand. [sent-209, score-0.152]
99 99% Table 4: Performance on preference violation detection task. [sent-257, score-0.27]
100 Columns 2 and 3 show how many sentences’ SRL/parsing and resource errors, respectively, had been fixed (“corr. [sent-259, score-0.106]
wordName wordTfidf (topN-words)
[('verbnet', 0.551), ('semlink', 0.359), ('mappings', 0.253), ('propbank', 0.161), ('corrected', 0.158), ('selectional', 0.156), ('restrictions', 0.144), ('violation', 0.143), ('corrections', 0.142), ('senna', 0.113), ('resource', 0.106), ('metaphor', 0.102), ('preference', 0.1), ('subclasses', 0.091), ('verb', 0.09), ('laws', 0.09), ('fixing', 0.084), ('metal', 0.084), ('correcting', 0.08), ('srl', 0.079), ('vn', 0.079), ('pragglejaz', 0.077), ('animate', 0.075), ('missing', 0.074), ('deleting', 0.072), ('entries', 0.072), ('arguments', 0.071), ('preferences', 0.066), ('errors', 0.066), ('restriction', 0.063), ('null', 0.062), ('verbs', 0.061), ('wordnet', 0.061), ('patient', 0.057), ('senses', 0.057), ('resources', 0.056), ('politician', 0.052), ('dairy', 0.051), ('endemic', 0.051), ('matte', 0.051), ('phys', 0.051), ('regulating', 0.051), ('prune', 0.051), ('changes', 0.048), ('modifications', 0.047), ('role', 0.046), ('corrupted', 0.045), ('synergistically', 0.045), ('plastic', 0.045), ('subst', 0.045), ('nonsensical', 0.045), ('tool', 0.044), ('agent', 0.043), ('algorithmic', 0.043), ('refinement', 0.043), ('investing', 0.042), ('fees', 0.042), ('masked', 0.042), ('subcorpus', 0.042), ('concrete', 0.041), ('david', 0.04), ('pavel', 0.038), ('kilgarriff', 0.037), ('loper', 0.037), ('ance', 0.037), ('pruned', 0.036), ('subclass', 0.036), ('thematic', 0.036), ('argument', 0.036), ('suggesting', 0.035), ('violations', 0.035), ('iarpa', 0.035), ('fix', 0.034), ('pa', 0.034), ('inspecting', 0.033), ('wilks', 0.033), ('collobert', 0.033), ('detector', 0.033), ('correction', 0.033), ('carbonell', 0.032), ('ob', 0.032), ('jaime', 0.031), ('adding', 0.031), ('cal', 0.031), ('bags', 0.031), ('incorrect', 0.03), ('edited', 0.029), ('stroudsburg', 0.028), ('sense', 0.028), ('martins', 0.028), ('ect', 0.028), ('tools', 0.028), ('interpreted', 0.028), ('continue', 0.027), ('detection', 0.027), ('sl', 0.027), ('refining', 0.027), ('alone', 0.027), ('hope', 0.026), ('roles', 0.026)]
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