emnlp emnlp2013 emnlp2013-32 knowledge-graph by maker-knowledge-mining
Source: pdf
Author: Grace Muzny ; Luke Zettlemoyer
Abstract: Online resources, such as Wiktionary, provide an accurate but incomplete source ofidiomatic phrases. In this paper, we study the problem of automatically identifying idiomatic dictionary entries with such resources. We train an idiom classifier on a newly gathered corpus of over 60,000 Wiktionary multi-word definitions, incorporating features that model whether phrase meanings are constructed compositionally. Experiments demonstrate that the learned classifier can provide high quality idiom labels, more than doubling the number of idiomatic entries from 7,764 to 18,155 at precision levels of over 65%. These gains also translate to idiom detection in sentences, by simply using known word sense disambiguation algorithms to match phrases to their definitions. In a set of Wiktionary definition example sentences, the more complete set of idioms boosts detection recall by over 28 percentage points.
Reference: text
sentIndex sentText sentNum sentScore
1 Automatic Idiom Identification in Wiktionary Grace Muzny and Luke Zettlemoyer Computer Science & Engineering University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195 {mu z nyg ,l z }@ c s s Abstract Online resources, such as Wiktionary, provide an accurate but incomplete source ofidiomatic phrases. [sent-1, score-0.051]
2 In this paper, we study the problem of automatically identifying idiomatic dictionary entries with such resources. [sent-2, score-0.688]
3 We train an idiom classifier on a newly gathered corpus of over 60,000 Wiktionary multi-word definitions, incorporating features that model whether phrase meanings are constructed compositionally. [sent-3, score-0.506]
4 Experiments demonstrate that the learned classifier can provide high quality idiom labels, more than doubling the number of idiomatic entries from 7,764 to 18,155 at precision levels of over 65%. [sent-4, score-0.957]
5 These gains also translate to idiom detection in sentences, by simply using known word sense disambiguation algorithms to match phrases to their definitions. [sent-5, score-0.545]
6 In a set of Wiktionary definition example sentences, the more complete set of idioms boosts detection recall by over 28 percentage points. [sent-6, score-0.42]
7 For example, a diamond in the rough can be the literal unpolished object or a crude but lovable person. [sent-8, score-0.321]
8 We use Wiktionary as a large, but incomplete, reference for idiomatic entries; individual entries can be marked as idiomatic but, in practice, most are . [sent-12, score-1.133]
9 Using these incomplete annotations as supervision, we train a binary Perceptron classifier for identifying idiomatic dictionary entries. [sent-15, score-0.695]
10 We introduce new lexical and graph-based features that use WordNet and Wiktionary to compute semantic relatedness. [sent-16, score-0.027]
11 This allows us to learn, for example, that the words in the phrase diamond in the rough are more closely related to the words in its literal definition than the idiomatic one. [sent-17, score-0.967]
12 Experiments demon- strate that the classifier achieves precision of over 65% at recall over 52% and that, when used to fill in missing Wiktionary idiom labels, it more than doubles the number of idioms from 7,764 to 18,155. [sent-18, score-0.535]
13 These gains also translate to idiom detection in sentences, by simply using the Lesk word sense disambiguation (WSD) algorithm (1986) to match phrases to their definitions. [sent-19, score-0.545]
14 This approach allows for scalable detection with no restrictions on the syntactic structure or context of the target phrase. [sent-20, score-0.154]
15 In a set of Wiktionary definition example sentences, the more complete set of idioms boosts detection recall by over 28 percentage points. [sent-21, score-0.42]
16 2 Related Work To the best of our knowledge, this work represents the first attempt to identify dictionary entries as idiomatic and the first to reduce idiom detection to identification via a dictionary. [sent-22, score-1.229]
17 Previous idiom detection systems fall in one of two paradigms: phrase classification, where a phrase p is always idiomatic or literal, e. [sent-23, score-1.125]
18 , 2010), or token classification, where each occurrence of a phrase p can be idiomatic or literal, e. [sent-27, score-0.591]
19 Most previous idiom detection systems have focused on specific syntactic constructions. [sent-32, score-0.433]
20 (2010) consider subject/verb (campaign surged) and verb/direct-object idioms (stir excitement) while Fazly and Stevenson (2006), Cook et al. [sent-34, score-0.141]
21 (2007), and Diab and Bhutada (2009) detect verb/noun idioms (blow smoke). [sent-35, score-0.141]
22 Fothergill and Baldwin (2012) are syntactically unconstrained, but only study Japanese idioms. [sent-36, score-0.03]
23 Although we focus on identifying idiomatic dictionary entries, one advantage of our approach is that it enables syntactically unconstrained token-level detection for any phrase in the dictionary. [sent-37, score-0.893]
24 3 Formal Problem Definitions Identification For identification, we assume data of the form {(hpi, dii , yi) : i = 1. [sent-38, score-0.063]
25 n} where pi tihs eth feo phrase assoic,iyate)d :w iith = =def 1in. [sent-41, score-0.075]
26 For example, this would inc∈lud {el ibteortahl ,th iedi loimtearatilc pair h r“ elexaavme pfoler, dead”, “uTlod ianbcalnuddoen b a person or aotlh peari living acvreea ftourre d tehadat” i,s “ Tinojured or otherwise incapacitated, assuming that the death of the one abandoned will soon follow. [sent-45, score-0.056]
27 ”i and tdheea tihdi oofm thateic o pair h “nldeoavnee dfo wr dead”, “ foToll disregard or bypass as unimportant. [sent-46, score-0.032]
28 Gr diveaedn hpi, dii, we gaairmd toor predict yi. [sent-48, score-0.028]
29 Detection To evaluate identification in the context of detection, we assume data {(hpi, eii , yi) : tie = f1 . [sent-49, score-0.183]
30 en ei whose idiomatic status is labeled yi ∈ {idiomatic, literal}. [sent-56, score-0.558]
31 One such idiomatic pair is h“heart mtoa heart”, “They seat s cdohw indi oamnda hca pda a long ohveaerrdtu teo h heeaartr ”to, h “eTahrte yab soautt tdhoew fnutu arned do fh tahdei ar relationship. [sent-57, score-0.625]
32 4 Data We gathered phrases, definitions, and example sentences from the English-language Wiktionary dump from November 13th, 2012. [sent-60, score-0.066]
33 FigAuTDUrlnaetion1S:aetN dumeTDbsvtreofdi4L52c76,t 8e0o13rn2a7lyeId61it93o,r587me60sa4twich536eTa4,o1c3827hta094lc13s 1418 for the Wiktionary identification data. [sent-63, score-0.133]
34 TD eaestvaSetL13ite67r01alIdi6o3m3950atic1T5o0 t5a15l Figure 2: Number of sentences of each class for the Wiktionary detection data. [sent-64, score-0.128]
35 the pair h “weapons of mass destruction”, r“aPselu—rael gfo. [sent-67, score-0.03]
36 r tmhe o pfa weapon aopfo mass destruction” iwas removed while the pair h “weapon odfes mtrauscst destruction”, m“oAv chemical, biological, reaadpioonlogical, nuclear or other weapon that . [sent-68, score-0.248]
37 y according to Etahec hid piaoirm lpa,bdeils w ains Wiktionary, producing tinheg Train, Unannotated Dev, and Unannotated Test data sets. [sent-75, score-0.028]
38 In practice, this produces a noisy assignment because a majority of the idiomatic senses are not marked. [sent-76, score-0.544]
39 The development and test sets were annotated to correct these potential omissions. [sent-77, score-0.034]
40 Annotators used the definition of an idiom as a “phrase with a non-compositional meaning” to produce the Annotated Dev and Annotated Test data sets. [sent-78, score-0.36]
41 Two annotators marked each dictionary entry as literal, idiomatic, or indeterminable. [sent-81, score-0.126]
42 Detection For detection, we gathered the example sentences provided, when available, for each defi- nition used in our annotated identification data sets. [sent-86, score-0.258]
43 ment and test data containing idiomatic and literal phrase usages. [sent-88, score-0.805]
44 In all, there were over 1,300 unique phrases, half of which had more than one possible dictionary definition in Wiktionary. [sent-89, score-0.127]
45 5 Identification Model For identification, we use a linear model that predicts class y∗ ∈ {literal, idiomatic} for an input pair hp, di with phrase p arnald, iddeifoinmiatitoicn} d f. [sent-91, score-0.141]
46 All models are trained on the same, unannotated training data. [sent-95, score-0.066]
47 Features The features that were developed fall into two categories: lexical and graph-based features. [sent-96, score-0.053]
48 The lexical features were motivated by the intuition that literal phrases are more likely to have closely related words in d to those in p because literal phrases do not break the principle of compositionality. [sent-97, score-0.543]
49 • synonym overlap: Let S be the set of synonyms as doevefirnleadp: :in L Wiktionary efo sre atll o fw soyrnd-s in pP. [sent-100, score-0.113]
50 Then, we define the synonym overlap = |S1| Ps∈S count(s, d). [sent-101, score-0.126]
51 PThen, we define the antonym overlap = |A1| Pa∈A count(a, d). [sent-103, score-0.13]
52 Let distance(w, v, rel, n) be the minimum distance via links of type rel in WordNet from a word w to a word v, up to a threshold max integer value n, and 0 otherwise. [sent-108, score-0.039]
53 i Tfehaet sreet nofsynsets Synp, all synsets from all words in p, and the set of synsets Synd, all synsets from all words in d, are connected by a shared antonym. [sent-110, score-0.271]
54 Experiments We report identification and detection results, varying the data labeling and choice of feature sets. [sent-113, score-0.261]
55 1 Identification Random Baseline We use a proportionally random baseline for the identification task that classifies according to the proportion of literal definitions seen in the training data. [sent-115, score-0.434]
56 Results are reported for the original, unannotated test set, and the same test examples with corrected idiom labels. [sent-117, score-0.371]
57 All models increased 4The first relation expanded was the antonym relation. [sent-118, score-0.089]
58 Figure 4: Precision and recall with varied features on the annotated test set. [sent-120, score-0.096]
59 We selected our operating point to optimize F-measure, but we see that the graph features perform well across all recall levels and that adding the lexical features provides consistent improvement in precision. [sent-123, score-0.055]
60 However, other points are possible, especially when aiming for high precision to extend the labels in Wiktionary. [sent-124, score-0.057]
61 For example, the original 7,764 entries can be extended to 18,155 at 65% precision, 9,594 at 80%, or 27,779 at 52. [sent-125, score-0.075]
62 Finally, Figures 5 and 6 present qualitative results, including newly discovered idioms and high scoring false identifications. [sent-127, score-0.17]
63 Analysis reveals where our system has room to improve—errors most often occur with phrases that are specific to a certain field, such 5We also ran ablations demonstrating that removing each feature from the Lexical+Graph model hurt performance, but omit the detailed results for space. [sent-128, score-0.044]
64 as sports or mathematics, and with phrases whose words also appear in their definitions. [sent-129, score-0.044]
65 2 Detection Approach We use the Lesk (1986) algorithm to perform WSD, matching an input phrase p from sentence e to the definition d in Wiktionary that defines the sense p is being used in. [sent-131, score-0.161]
66 The final classification y is then assigned to hp, di by the identification model. [sent-132, score-0.199]
67 The baseline for this experiment is a model that assigns the default labels within Wiktionary to the disambiguated definition. [sent-134, score-0.027]
68 The Annotated model is the Lexical+Graph model shown in Figure 3 evaluated on the annotated data. [sent-135, score-0.034]
69 The +Default setting augments the identification model by labeling the hp, ei as indtisom theati idc einf eifiitchaetri othne m mmododeell b or tahbee original hlpa,beeil within Wiktionary identifies it as such. [sent-136, score-0.158]
70 7 Conclusions We presented a supervised approach to classifying definitions as idiomatic or literal that more than dou1420 DMeofdauelltR60e. [sent-137, score-0.789]
71 bles the number of marked idioms in Wiktionary, even when training on incomplete data. [sent-148, score-0.218]
72 When combined with the Lesk word sense algorithm, this approach provides a complete idiom detector for any phrase in the dictionary. [sent-149, score-0.443]
73 We expect that semi-supervised learning techniques could better recover the missing labels and boost overall performance. [sent-150, score-0.027]
74 We also think it should be possible to scale the detection approach, perhaps with automatic dictionary definition discovery, and evaluate it on more varied sentence types. [sent-151, score-0.289]
75 A clustering approach for nearly unsupervised recognition of nonliteral language. [sent-158, score-0.028]
76 Pulling their weight: Exploiting syntactic forms for the automatic identification of idiomatic expressions in context. [sent-171, score-0.689]
77 In Proceedings of the workshop on a broader perspective on multiword expressions. [sent-172, score-0.07]
78 Automatically constructing a lexicon of verb phrase idiomatic combinations. [sent-190, score-0.591]
79 Large margin clas- sification using the perceptron algorithm. [sent-203, score-0.036]
80 Automatic identification of non-compositional multi-word expressions using latent semantic analysis. [sent-217, score-0.173]
81 Automatic sense disambiguation using machine readable dictionaries: How to tell a pine cone from an ice cream cone. [sent-222, score-0.093]
82 Classifier combination for contextual idiom detection without labelled data. [sent-228, score-0.433]
wordName wordTfidf (topN-words)
[('idiomatic', 0.516), ('wiktionary', 0.443), ('idiom', 0.305), ('literal', 0.214), ('idioms', 0.141), ('shutova', 0.138), ('identification', 0.133), ('detection', 0.128), ('ddistance', 0.127), ('hpi', 0.127), ('hp', 0.108), ('fazly', 0.101), ('destruction', 0.095), ('weapon', 0.095), ('cook', 0.089), ('antonym', 0.089), ('synonym', 0.085), ('lesk', 0.083), ('synsets', 0.081), ('phrase', 0.075), ('entries', 0.075), ('dictionary', 0.072), ('multiword', 0.07), ('di', 0.066), ('unannotated', 0.066), ('gathered', 0.066), ('diamond', 0.063), ('dii', 0.063), ('fothergill', 0.063), ('gedigian', 0.063), ('definitions', 0.059), ('budanitsky', 0.055), ('birke', 0.055), ('zesch', 0.055), ('definition', 0.055), ('incomplete', 0.051), ('eii', 0.05), ('sag', 0.05), ('heart', 0.047), ('metaphor', 0.047), ('unconstrained', 0.047), ('dead', 0.044), ('rough', 0.044), ('phrases', 0.044), ('freund', 0.042), ('yi', 0.042), ('overlap', 0.041), ('wsd', 0.04), ('expressions', 0.04), ('diab', 0.039), ('rel', 0.039), ('katz', 0.039), ('disambiguation', 0.037), ('perceptron', 0.036), ('boosts', 0.036), ('baldwin', 0.036), ('annotated', 0.034), ('varied', 0.034), ('complete', 0.032), ('wr', 0.032), ('sense', 0.031), ('classifier', 0.031), ('mass', 0.03), ('precision', 0.03), ('syntactically', 0.03), ('newly', 0.029), ('entry', 0.028), ('senses', 0.028), ('wordnet', 0.028), ('recall', 0.028), ('toor', 0.028), ('catching', 0.028), ('ftourre', 0.028), ('mtoa', 0.028), ('ains', 0.028), ('abandoned', 0.028), ('atll', 0.028), ('bhutada', 0.028), ('capitals', 0.028), ('mise', 0.028), ('nonliteral', 0.028), ('oav', 0.028), ('pda', 0.028), ('pfa', 0.028), ('proportionally', 0.028), ('smoke', 0.028), ('sreet', 0.028), ('utlod', 0.028), ('yab', 0.028), ('lexical', 0.027), ('dev', 0.027), ('labels', 0.027), ('marked', 0.026), ('fall', 0.026), ('scalable', 0.026), ('identifying', 0.025), ('augments', 0.025), ('nition', 0.025), ('pine', 0.025), ('arned', 0.025)]
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