acl acl2012 acl2012-49 knowledge-graph by maker-knowledge-mining
Source: pdf
Author: Nathan Schneider ; Behrang Mohit ; Kemal Oflazer ; Noah A. Smith
Abstract: “Lightweight” semantic annotation of text calls for a simple representation, ideally without requiring a semantic lexicon to achieve good coverage in the language and domain. In this paper, we repurpose WordNet’s supersense tags for annotation, developing specific guidelines for nominal expressions and applying them to Arabic Wikipedia articles in four topical domains. The resulting corpus has high coverage and was completed quickly with reasonable inter-annotator agreement.
Reference: text
sentIndex sentText sentNum sentScore
1 edu Abstract “Lightweight” semantic annotation of text calls for a simple representation, ideally without requiring a semantic lexicon to achieve good coverage in the language and domain. [sent-6, score-0.228]
2 In this paper, we repurpose WordNet’s supersense tags for annotation, developing specific guidelines for nominal expressions and applying them to Arabic Wikipedia articles in four topical domains. [sent-7, score-0.709]
3 1 Introduction The goal of “lightweight” semantic annotation of text, particularly in scenarios with limited resources and expertise, presents several requirements for a representation: simplicity; adaptability to new languages, topics, and genres; and coverage. [sent-9, score-0.23]
4 This paper describes coarse lexical semantic annotation of Arabic Wikipedia articles subject to these con- straints. [sent-10, score-0.291]
5 Traditional lexical semantic representations are either narrow in scope, like named make reference to a full-fledged entities,1 or lexicon/ontology, which may insufficiently cover the language/domain of interest or require prohibitive fort to apply. [sent-11, score-0.095]
6 2 expertise and ef- We therefore turn to supersense tags (SSTs), 40 coarse lexical semantic classes (25 for nouns, 15 for verbs) originating in WordNet. [sent-12, score-0.73]
7 Previously these served as groupings of English lexicon 1Some ontologies like those in Sekine et al. [sent-13, score-0.049]
8 , a WordNet (Fellbaum, 1998) sense annotation effort reported by Passonneau et al. [sent-18, score-0.191]
9 (2010) found considerable interannotator variability for some lexemes; FrameNet (Baker et al. [sent-19, score-0.074]
10 , 1998) is limited in coverage, even for English; and PropBank (Kingsbury and Palmer, 2002) does not capture semantic relationships across lexemes. [sent-20, score-0.047]
11 , 2003) has been used for fine-grained crosslingual annotation (Hovy et al. [sent-22, score-0.134]
12 @ book Guinness for-records the-standard that COMMUNICATION Ø? [sent-48, score-0.054]
13 year AD TIME ‘The Guinness Book of World Records considers the University of Al-Karaouine in Fez, Morocco, established in the year 859 AD, the oldest university in the world. [sent-95, score-0.049]
14 ’ Figure 1: A sentence from the article “Islamic Golden Age,” with the supersense tagging from one of two annotators. [sent-96, score-0.632]
15 Part of the earliest versions of WordNet, the supersense categories (originally, “lexicographer classes”) were intended to partition all English noun and verb senses into broad groupings, or semantic fields (Miller, 1990; Fellbaum, 1990). [sent-99, score-0.615]
16 More recently, the task of automatic supersense tagging has emerged for English (Ciaramita and Johnson, 2003; Curran, 2005; Ciaramita and Altun, 2006; Paaß and Reichartz, 2009), as well as for Italian (Picca et al. [sent-100, score-0.632]
17 3 mapped to English lieve supersenses In principle, we be- ought to apply to nouns and verbs in any language, and need not depend on the availability of a semantic lexicon. [sent-105, score-0.24]
18 , 3Note that work in supersense tagging used text with finegrained sense annotations that were then coarsened to SSTs. [sent-109, score-0.689]
19 The 7 article titles (translated) in each domain, with total counts of sentences, tokens, and supersense mentions. [sent-114, score-0.568]
20 Overall, there are 2,219 sentences with 65,452 tokens and 23,239 mentions (1. [sent-115, score-0.059]
21 Counts exclude sentences marked as problematic and mentions marked ? [sent-117, score-0.155]
22 We encapsulate our interpretation of the tags in a set of brief guidelines that aims to be usable by anyone who can read and understand a text in the target language; our annotators had no prior expertise in linguistics or linguistic annotation. [sent-124, score-0.244]
23 Finally, we note that ad hoc categorization schemes not unlike SSTs have been developed for purposes ranging from question answering (Li and Roth, 2002) to animacy hierarchy representation for corpus linguistics (Zaenen et al. [sent-125, score-0.042]
24 We believe the interpretation of the SSTs adopted here can serve as a single starting point for diverse resource engineering efforts and applications, especially when fine-grained sense annotation is not feasible. [sent-127, score-0.191]
25 2 Tagging Conventions WordNet’s definitions of the supersenses are terse, and we could find little explicit discussion of the specific rationales behind each category. [sent-128, score-0.114]
26 Thus, we have crafted more specific explanations, summarized for nouns in figure 2. [sent-129, score-0.079]
27 English examples are given, but the guidelines are intended to be language-neutral. [sent-130, score-0.083]
28 5 In developing these guidelines we consulted English WordNet (Fellbaum, 1998) and SemCor (Miller et al. [sent-132, score-0.14]
29 3 Arabic Wikipedia Annotation The annotation in this work was on top of a small corpus of Arabic Wikipedia articles that had already been annotated for named entities (Mohit et al. [sent-139, score-0.24]
30 The dataset (table 1) consists of the main text of 28 articles selected from the topical domains of history, sports, science, and technology. [sent-143, score-0.058]
31 The annotation task was to identify and categorize mentions, i. [sent-144, score-0.134]
32 Working in a custom, browserbased interface, annotators were to tag each relevant token with a supersense category by selecting the token and typing a tag symbol. [sent-147, score-0.754]
33 Any token could be marked as continuing a multiword unit by typing <. [sent-148, score-0.092]
34 If the annotator was ambivalent about a token they were to mark it with the ? [sent-149, score-0.111]
35 Over several months, annotators alternately annotated sentences from 2 designated articles of each domain, and reviewed the annotations for consistency. [sent-154, score-0.156]
36 All tagging conventions were developed collaboratively by the author(s) and annotators during this period, informed by points of confusion and disagreement. [sent-155, score-0.269]
37 WordNet and SemCor were consulted as part of developing the guidelines, but not during annotation itself so as to avoid complicating the annotation process or overfitting to WordNet’s idiosyncracies. [sent-156, score-0.325]
38 The training phase ended once interannotator mention F1 had reached 75%. [sent-157, score-0.074]
39 6Suggestions came from the previous named entity annota- tion of PERSONs, organizations (GROUP), and LOCATIONs, as well as heuristic lookup in lexical resources—Arabic WordNet entries (Elkateb et al. [sent-158, score-0.048]
40 , 2006) mapped to English WordNet, and named entities in OntoNotes (Hovy et al. [sent-159, score-0.048]
41 A connection is a RELATION; project, support, and a configuration are tagged as COGNITION; development and collaboration are ACTs. [sent-166, score-0.067]
42 Arabic conventions Masdar constructions (verbal nouns) are treated as nouns. [sent-167, score-0.06]
43 Sports championships/tournaments are EVENTs (Information) Technology Software names, kinds, and components are tagged as COMMUNICATION (e. [sent-169, score-0.067]
44 kernel, Figure 2: Above: The complete supersense tagset for nouns; each tag is briefly described by its symbol, NAME, short description, and examples. [sent-171, score-0.568]
45 Throughout the process, annotators were encouraged to discuss points of confusion with each other, but each sentence was annotated in its entirety and never revisited. [sent-175, score-0.145]
46 To measure inter-annotator agreement, 87 sentences (2,774 tokens) distributed across 19 of the articles (not including those used in pilot rounds) were annotated independently by each annotator. [sent-182, score-0.058]
47 Interannotator mention F1 (counting agreement over entire mentions and their labels) was 70%. [sent-183, score-0.109]
48 Excluding the 1,397 tokens left blank by both annotators, the token-level agreement rate was 71%, with Cohen’s κ = 0. [sent-184, score-0.05]
49 7 We also measured agreement on a tag-by-tag ba- sis. [sent-186, score-0.05]
50 An examination of the confusion matrix reveals four pairs of supersense categories that tended to provoke the most disagreement: COMMUNICATION/COGNITION, ACT/COGNITION, ACT/PROCESS, and ARTIFACT/COMMUNICATION. [sent-189, score-0.615]
51 7Token-level measures consider both the supersense label and whether it begins or continues the mention. [sent-190, score-0.568]
52 256 where one annotator chose ARTIFACT (referring to the physical book) while the other chose COMMUNICATION (the content). [sent-191, score-0.067]
53 Also in that sentence, annotators disagreed on the second use of university (ARTIFACT vs. [sent-192, score-0.098]
54 As with any sense annotation effort, some disagreements due to legitimate ambiguity and different interpretations of the tags— especially the broadest ones—are unavoidable. [sent-194, score-0.191]
55 A “soft” agreement measure (counting as matches any two mentions with the same label and at least one token in common) gives an F1 of 79%, show- ing that boundary decisions account for a major portion of the disagreement. [sent-195, score-0.153]
56 , the city Fez, Morocco (figure 1) was tagged as a single LOCATION by one annotator and as two by the other. [sent-198, score-0.134]
57 Further examples include the technical term ‘thin client’, for which one annotator omitted the adjective; and ‘World Cup Football Championship’, where one annotator tagged the entire phrase as an EVENT while the other tagged ‘football’ as a separate ACT. [sent-199, score-0.268]
58 4 Conclusion We have codified supersense tags as a simple annotation scheme for coarse lexical semantics, and have shown that supersense annotation of Arabic Wikipedia can be rapid, reliable, and robust (about half the tokens in our data are covered by a nominal supersense). [sent-200, score-1.456]
59 Our tagging guidelines and corpus are available for download at http : / /www . [sent-201, score-0.147]
60 A resource and tool for super-sense tagging of Italian texts. [sent-211, score-0.064]
61 Broad-coverage sense disambiguation and information extraction with a supersense sequence tagger. [sent-233, score-0.625]
62 Interlingual annotation of parallel text corpora: a new framework for annotation and evaluation. [sent-250, score-0.268]
63 Word sense annotation of polysemous words by multiple annotators. [sent-304, score-0.191]
64 Combining contextual and structural information for supersense tagging of Chinese unknown words. [sent-325, score-0.632]
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